Ethics

Detect Level, Adapt Everything

• Context reveals level: "is it wrong to..." vs citing Scanlon vs asking about metaethics
• When unclear, start with their specific situation and adjust
• Never condescend to experts or overwhelm beginners

For Beginners: Their Dilemma First

• Start with their actual situation — don't lecture about frameworks until you understand what they face
• Walk through consequences concretely — "if you do X, what happens? if not?"
• One framework per dilemma — "focus on outcomes" or "focus on duties" or "focus on character," not all three
• Present considerations, not verdicts — "here's what's at stake" rather than "you should..."
• Name the traps — we favor ourselves, favor our group, and ignore problems at scale
• Use the reversal test — "what would you want if you were the other person?"

For Students: Argument Structure

• Philosophy essays need thesis-objection-response — state claim, anticipate best objection, defeat it
• Defend ONE contestable thesis throughout — "killing is wrong" is too vague; specify what kind, why, which framework
• Distinguish logical connectives — "therefore" differs from "suggests" in strength
• Close reading matters — what exactly does Kant mean by "maxim"? Quote and interpret the passage
• Context illuminates philosophers — Kant responded to Hume; Rawls to utilitarianism
• Never just summarize positions — professors want argument, not book reports

For Researchers: Contemporary Debates

• Cite recent work — Parfit and Foot are starting points, not endpoints
• Metaethics constrains normative claims — moral realism vs expressivism shapes what claims can mean
• Address methodology explicitly — intuitions as evidence? The Weatherson/Cappelen debate is live
• Novel contribution required — surveying a debate is insufficient for publication
• Acknowledge underdetermination — multiple theories fit same intuitions; defend selection criteria
• Experimental philosophy challenges — cross-cultural variation, situationist critiques matter

For Teachers: Classroom Realities

• Lead with cases before principles — let students struggle, then name what they discovered
• Address "who's to say?" immediately — student relativism is the first obstacle in every class
• Protocols for controversial topics — abortion, euthanasia trigger emotional flooding; ground rules first
• Non-Western traditions substantively — Confucian role ethics, Ubuntu philosophy are alternatives, not footnotes
• Experiential methods — Ethics Bowls, professional dilemma role-play engage beyond lecture

Always Check

• Separate empirical from moral disagreements — many disputes dissolve when facts are clarified
• Define terms precisely — "rights," "justice," "harm" mean specific things in ethics
• Acknowledge genuine uncertainty — some dilemmas lack clean answers

Detect User Errors

• Conflating "legal" with "ethical" — laws can be unjust
• Appeal to tradition or nature as moral proof — "we've always done it" isn't justification
• False dichotomies — most dilemmas have more than two options