SMT solving with Z3 and cvc5

Contract

Field	Bound contract
Trigger	A constraint problem needs an SMT-LIB query written and solved, an unsat result needs its core explained, or a verifier built on Z3 or cvc5 (Apalache, Kani, Verus, Frama-C WP, Dafny, Why3) reports unknown or a timeout that must be diagnosed.
Authority	Reversible local: writes .smt2 files and solver logs; rollback is deleting them. No remote mutation.
Side effect	Query files and captured solver output on disk. Solver runs are bounded by an explicit timeout.
Done	Every query has a recorded verdict of sat with a model, unsat with a core, or unknown with the solver's reason and the change that resolves it.

Inputs

The constraint problem, or the failing query dumped by the calling tool. Solver pins from the grounded set: Z3 z3-5.1.0 (pip install z3-solver, or apt, brew, prebuilt binaries, or source) and cvc5 cvc5-1.3.4 (pip install cvc5, prebuilt binaries, or source). The input language is SMT-LIB 2.7 (reference document revision 2026-03-27, https://smt-lib.org/). Optional: a target logic, a per-query timeout budget, and the calling tool's own solver options.

Procedure

1. Choose the logic and declare the sorts. Open the file with (set-logic L) where L is the narrowest fragment that fits: QF_LIA for linear integers, QF_BV for fixed-width bit-vectors, QF_UFLIA when uninterpreted functions join linear arithmetic, QF_ABV for bit-vectors with arrays. Quantifier-free fragments decide; quantified ones may return unknown. Z3 and cvc5 both accept ALL as a solver keyword that enables every theory, but ALL is not a logic named by the standard, so use it only for exploration. Declare each variable with (declare-const x Int) and each function with (declare-fun f (Int) Bool). Done when: the header names one logic and every symbol is declared before use.
2. Write the assertions with names. Turn on the options first, because the standard requires (set-option :produce-models true) and (set-option :produce-unsat-cores true) before any declaration or assertion. Wrap every assertion whose origin matters as (assert (! <term> :named a1)). Names are what an unsat core reports, so one assertion per requirement and one name per source line. End with (check-sat) and, on the expected branch, (get-model) or (get-unsat-core). Done when: every assertion carries a name that maps back to a requirement.
3. Run with a timeout. Z3: z3 -smt2 -T:30 query.smt2 sets a hard 30-second limit for the whole process; -t:30000 sets a soft limit in milliseconds that ends only the current query; -st prints statistics. cvc5: cvc5 --lang smt2 --tlimit=30000 query.smt2 limits the whole run in milliseconds and --tlimit-per=30000 limits each check-sat; --stats prints statistics. Run both solvers on any query that matters: agreement on unsat is the cross-check, disagreement is a bug in the query or a solver. Done when: both solvers have printed a verdict or a timeout under the recorded budget.
4. Read sat. Issue (get-model); the reply is a list of define-fun forms, one per declared symbol. A model is a witness that the assertions are jointly satisfiable, so when the query encodes "the property can be violated", the model is the counterexample: substitute its values into the original requirement and confirm by hand that it breaks. Done when: the model has been replayed against the property and the violation is understood or the encoding is fixed.
5. Read unsat. Issue (get-unsat-core); the reply is a subset of the named assertions that is already unsatisfiable. When the query encodes "the property can be violated", unsat is the proof and the core names which assumptions the proof needs. When the query encodes a system that should have solutions, unsat means the requirements conflict and the core is the smallest set to argue about. Remove one core member at a time and rerun to confirm that each is necessary. For assumption sets that change between checks, use (check-sat-assuming (a1 a2)) with (set-option :produce-unsat-assumptions true) and read (get-unsat-assumptions), which keeps the base assertions fixed and avoids a push/pop cycle. Done when: every core member is confirmed necessary and mapped to its requirement.
6. Read unknown and timeouts. After unknown, issue (get-info :reason-unknown); the standard defines memout and incomplete, and each solver adds its own strings (Z3 prints timeout and canceled; cvc5 names TIMEOUT, RESOURCEOUT, MEMOUT, INCOMPLETE, and REQUIRES_FULL_CHECK). Z3 exits 102 on a hard -T: timeout after printing timeout; cvc5 exits 0 after a completed run whatever the verdict and 1 on an option or API error, so read the printed verdict and not the exit code. Resolve in this order: narrow the logic (quantified to quantifier-free, Int to BitVec when the domain is finite), remove quantifiers by instantiating the finite domain, split one large query into per-property queries, then raise the timeout once with a written reason. Done when: the query returns sat or unsat, or the reason it cannot is recorded with the reductions tried.
7. Diagnose another tool's solver failure. Get the tool to dump its query (Frama-C WP writes its proof obligations to the directory named by -wp-out; Apalache selects its backend with --smt-solver=z3 or cvc5; Kani accepts #[kani::solver(z3)] or cvc5 on the harness). Run the dumped .smt2 through steps 3 to 6 with both solvers. A query that one solver settles in seconds and the other cannot is a backend choice, so switch the calling tool's backend. A query neither solver settles is an encoding problem, so simplify the source property or add a lemma at the source. Done when: the calling tool's failure is traced to a backend choice or a source-level encoding change, and that change is applied.

Failure and recovery

On a parse error, Z3 exits 103 and cvc5 prints (error "..."); fix the reported line, and check that every option was set before the first declaration. On a model that does not violate the property when replayed, the encoding is wrong: the query and the property disagree, so rewrite the assertion that mismatches and rerun before trusting any verdict. On an unsat core that is the whole assertion set, add finer names: one assertion per conjunct. On a push/pop session that returns different verdicts for the same assertions, reset the solver and rerun the failing query standalone; incremental state is a common source of confusion. On two solvers that disagree, the query is the suspect first: check the logic declaration and bit widths, then report the minimal query to the solver whose answer is wrong. Never raise a timeout without recording the reason and the reductions already tried.

Output

The .smt2 query files; per query, the verdict from each solver, with the model replayed against the property on sat, the confirmed minimal core mapped to requirements on unsat, or the reason and reductions on unknown; for a calling tool's failure, the backend switch or source-level change that resolved it.