Expert-level distributed systems theory covering consistency models, consensus algorithms, fault tolerance, replication, distributed transactions, and the CAP theorem.
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Strong consistency: linearizability — operations appear instantaneous and ordered. Sequential consistency: all processes see same operation order, not necessarily real-time. Causal consistency: causally related operations ordered, concurrent may differ. Eventual consistency: replicas converge given no new updates — DNS, DynamoDB. CRDT: conflict-free replicated data types — merge without coordination.
Consistency: every read gets most recent write or error. Availability: every request gets non-error response. Partition tolerance: system works despite network partitions. Cannot guarantee all three: choose CP or AP during partition. PACELC: extends CAP to also consider latency vs consistency tradeoff.
Paxos: classic consensus, complex to implement, single-decree and multi-Paxos. Raft: leader election, log replication, safety — designed for understandability. Raft terms: leader, follower, candidate — heartbeats prevent elections. Byzantine fault tolerance: BFT requires 3f+1 nodes to tolerate f Byzantine faults.
Single-leader: one primary accepts writes, replicas read — simple, sequential. Multi-leader: multiple primaries accept writes — conflict resolution needed. Leaderless: Dynamo-style — quorum reads and writes, sloppy quorum. Replication lag: replica may serve stale data — monotonic read consistency.
2PC: two-phase commit — prepare and commit phases, blocking on coordinator failure. Saga pattern: sequence of local transactions with compensating actions. Distributed deadlock: cycle detection across nodes, timeout-based resolution.
| Pitfall | Fix |
|---|---|
| Assuming network reliability | Handle timeouts and retries explicitly |
| Non-idempotent retries causing duplicates | Use idempotency keys |
| Two generals problem with 2PC | Accept that 2PC can block, use sagas for long transactions |
| Clock skew in ordering events | Use logical clocks or vector clocks |
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