Expert-level biomedical imaging covering X-ray, CT, MRI, ultrasound, nuclear medicine, optical imaging, and image processing for clinical and research applications.
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X-ray production: electrons accelerated to anode, bremsstrahlung and characteristic radiation. Attenuation: Beer-Lambert law, tissue contrast from differential attenuation. CT reconstruction: filtered backprojection or iterative algorithms from projections. Hounsfield units: CT number scale, air -1000, water 0, bone +1000. Dose: effective dose in mSv, CT higher than plain X-ray, ALARA principle.
Nuclear magnetic resonance: protons align in B0 field, RF pulse tips magnetization. T1 relaxation: longitudinal recovery, fat bright on T1. T2 relaxation: transverse decay, water bright on T2. K-space: raw MRI data in frequency domain, Fourier transform gives image. Sequences: spin echo, gradient echo, EPI, each with different contrast and speed.
Pulse-echo: transducer transmits pulse, receives echoes from tissue interfaces. Acoustic impedance: Z = rho times c, mismatch causes reflection. Frequency trade-off: higher frequency gives better resolution but less penetration. Doppler: frequency shift from moving blood cells, measures flow velocity. Modes: A-mode, B-mode, M-mode, Doppler, 3D ultrasound.
PET: positron emission tomography, FDG tracer, metabolic imaging. SPECT: single photon emission CT, lower resolution than PET but cheaper. Radiotracer: injected, accumulates in target tissue, emits detectable radiation. PET-CT: combined anatomical and functional imaging, standard in oncology.
| Pitfall | Fix |
|---|---|
| Ignoring partial volume effect in CT | Account for voxel size when measuring small structures |
| MRI metal artifacts | Screen patients for implants, use metal artifact reduction sequences |
| Ultrasound shadowing from bone or gas | Interpret artifacts in clinical context |
| Registration errors in multi-modal imaging | Use rigid or deformable registration as appropriate |
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Expert-level abstract algebra knowledge. Use when working with groups, rings, fields, modules, Galois theory, representation theory, or algebraic structures. Also use when the user mentions 'group', 'ring', 'field', 'homomorphism', 'isomorphism', 'normal subgroup', 'quotient group', 'Sylow theorem', 'Galois theory', 'polynomial ring', 'ideal', 'module', 'vector space', or 'representation theory'.
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Expert-level acoustics knowledge. Use when working with sound waves, acoustic propagation, resonance, standing waves, Doppler effect, room acoustics, ultrasound, noise control, musical acoustics, or architectural acoustics. Also use when the user mentions 'sound wave', 'decibel', 'frequency', 'resonance', 'standing wave', 'Doppler effect', 'acoustic impedance', 'reverberation', 'ultrasound', 'noise control', 'harmonics', or 'sound intensity'.
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Expert-level aerodynamics covering subsonic and supersonic flow, lift and drag, airfoil theory, boundary layers, compressible flow, and CFD methods.
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Expert-level air quality engineering covering pollutant sources, atmospheric dispersion, air quality standards, emission controls, and air quality modeling.
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Expert-level aircraft structures covering structural design philosophy, wing and fuselage analysis, fatigue and damage tolerance, composite structures, and certification.
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Expert-level algorithms and complexity theory covering sorting, searching, graph algorithms, dynamic programming, greedy algorithms, NP-completeness, and algorithm design paradigms.
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